SONG OF SOLOMON

Michael Rydelnik and Tim M. Sigler

Title. The title "Song of Solomon" is from the opening words in the Hebrew text, Shir hashirim asher l’sholomo (lit., "Song of Songs which belongs to/concerns Solomon"). Many English versions identify the book as Song of Solomon (NASB, AV, RSV, NKJV, KJV), while other versions title the book Song of Songs (NIV, TNIV). The Latin Vulgate translates the Hebrew as Canticum Canticorum, or in English, Canticles (Catholic Bibles).

Author. Solomon is identified as the author in the opening verse, "The Song of Songs, which is Solomon’s" (l’sholomo = "of/concerning Solomon"). Solomon, King David’s son (1Kg 2:2–4), ruled Israel during the high point of the united kingdom (970–930 BC) and is a central figure in the book (Sg 1:1, 5; 3:7, 9, 11; 8:11–12). God gave Solomon great wisdom and he spoke 3,000 proverbs, many recorded in the book of Proverbs, plus 1,005 songs (1Kg 4:29–34). This superlative form (Song of Songs) is common in biblical Hebrew, as seen in the phrases "King of kings," "Lord of lords," and "holy of holies." It indicates that of all of Solomon’s many songs, these are his best.

Although a great king, Solomon is infamous for his 700 wives and 300 concubines (1Kg 11:3), so it is puzzling that he would write a book extolling faithfulness in marriage. Sadly, many people do not practice the wisdom they know, and this may account for the contradiction between Solomon’s wise words and his foolish behavior.

However, though Solomon is a central figure, he may not have written the Song in its final form. As Pr 25:1 describes Hezekiah’s men recording Solomon’s proverbs well after his time, so too the Song may be a later recollection of Solomon’s love poems. That Solomon wrote numerous such songs is clear from 1Kg 4:29–34. Regardless, Solomon’s songs of love were not based on his own experience but rather intended to depict an "ideal" marriage.

Date. The book was probably composed while Solomon was king (970–930 BC) or some time shortly thereafter. Although it lacks the historical reference points found in the Pentateuch, Prophetic Books, and many of the Psalms, the interpretation of the Song does not depend upon chronology.

Theme and Purpose. Like Ps 45, which is titled "A Song of Love" and celebrates a royal wedding, the Song is a celebration of marital love. Its association with Solomon allows it to be read in light of other wisdom books as both a song of celebration and caution—celebrating divinely created and encouraged marital love as well as cautioning against its misuse or exploitation. Just as Solomon repeatedly pleaded with future Davidic rulers, employing the phrase "my son" throughout Pr 1–7, the Song cautions the "daughters of Jerusalem" to be wise about sexuality (Sg 2:7; 3:5; 8:4). Thus the Song may be read as a female counterpart to Proverbs. Sadly, though Solomon did not always follow the wisdom of Proverbs or the Song, God did use him to write of both wisdom and love despite his failures.

The Song borrows imagery from plant and animal life, food and beverage, geography, colors, fragrances, and many other aspects of the natural order that idealize a paradise-like landscape, reminiscent of the garden of Eden. Marital love, though tainted and troubled by the fall, is still a part of God’s creation and a good gift intended for husband and wife to fully enjoy.

Despite the Song’s obviously sensual content, it should not be reduced to a manual on romantic love. The Song warns those who would approach sexuality carelessly that "love is as strong as death, jealousy is as severe as Sheol" (8:6). These very cautions found throughout the Song demonstrate that it is overwhelmingly a celebration of marital love.

Therefore, the major purpose of the Song is to exalt the love and marriage between a husband and wife. Like Hosea and Proverbs, this book teaches the importance of faithful, pure love in marriage, which is also reflected in the NT: "Marriage is to be held in honor among all, and the marriage bed is to be undefiled" (Heb 13:4).

In addition to the depiction of the celebration of ideal marital love, as Hamilton maintains, its secondary purpose could also be to symbolize the messianic hope of recovery of spiritual intimacy after the alienation of sin (J. M. Hamilton, Jr., "The Messianic Music of the Song of Songs: A Non-Allegorical Interpretation," WTJ 68 [2006]: 331).

Genre. The Song is written in Hebrew poetry. Although called "Song," the Hebrew word refers to a poem, much more like a sonnet than a musical composition. This literary style, found throughout the OT, is rich in repeated words, linguistic patterns, and parallelism. As poetry, the Song is built on imagery and symbolism, intended to portray themes and ideas outside the scope of the literal descriptive words (e.g., "Your teeth are like a flock of newly shorn ewes …", 4:2). Robert Gordis notes the significance of the use of poetry: "The essence of poetry employs symbolism, not allegory, to express nuances beyond the power of exact definition.… The language of symbolism, on the other hand, is superior to literal speech as well, because its elements possess both existential reality and a representational character" (The Song of Songs and Lamentations, revised edition [New York: Ktav, 1974], 36–38).

Interpretation. Scholars and theologians have offered numerous suggestions to understand the challenging poetic message of the Song. Their presuppositions determine how the book is understood.

First, allegory has historically been the most common approach to the Song. Jewish tradition sees it as a story of God’s love for Israel. Christian tradition has seen it as Christ’s love for the Church. Although love is a key element in the Song, forcing an allegory strains the message of the text and imposes arbitrary meanings. Therefore, allegory has generally been rejected by modern scholarship as a valid approach to the Song.

Second, it is common to interpret the Song as a drama. As a drama, Solomon and the Shulammite (see comments at 6:13 for this name) have the main roles with a chorus as minor speakers. The lack of plotline in the Song and the subjective imposition of scenes make a dramatic reading forced. Most importantly, full-fledged dramatic literature of this type was not known among the ancient Israelites.

Third, some critical scholars see the Song as a sacred marriage story drawn from ancient pagan Near Eastern fertility cults. However, annual fertility rituals are absent from the Song. Furthermore, it is doubtful that the sacred monotheistic Scriptures would borrow from pagan fertility rituals.

Fourth, a common current interpretation of the genre of the Song is that it is an anthology of love poems. The Hebrew title of the book provides readers with a literary clue to the book’s genre—and therefore its interpretation. Shir Hashirim (the Song of Songs) is a collection of love poems or a song composed of many songs—thus a "song of songs." Those who differ with this interpretation argue it fails to see the intrinsic unity in the Song as well as the intertextual links within it.

Fifth, recently it has been again suggested that the Song should be read as a messianic document. John Sailhamer and James Hamilton have both argued that the Song was written from a messianic perspective in order to nourish a messianic hope.

Sailhamer views the Song as an allegory not of Messiah’s love for the Church, but for His love for divine wisdom. He cites "Beneath the apple tree I awakened you …" (8:5b) as an intertextual reference to the prologue of the book of Proverbs and the fall in Gn 3 (J. H. Sailhamer, NIV Compact Bible Commentary [Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 1994], 359–60). In his view the beloved is understood as "wisdom" and Solomon represents the promised seed of Gn 3:15.

Hamilton proposes a more likely messianic view. He posits a nonallegorical but symbolic interpretation, with King Solomon, as the son of David, representing "the ultimate expression of David’s royal seed … the Davidic king, with all the messianic connotations that status carries" (Hamilton Jr., "The Messianic Music of the Song of Songs," 331). Hamilton sees the theme of the Song as the "recovery of intimacy after alienation, which appears to match the hope engendered by Gn 3:15 for a seed for the woman who would come as the royal Messiah to restore the gladness of Eden" (339–40).

After demonstrating the development of this theme of recovered intimacy through the Song, Hamilton points out that "I am my beloved’s, And his desire is for me" (Sg 7:10) functions as the climax to the Song, using the same word for "desire" as in Gn 3:16. This word (Hb. tesuqah) is used only three times in the Hebrew Bible (Gn 3:16; 4:7; Sg 7:10). The first two uses refer to the alienation of the fall. Thus the Song appears to be making a direct allusion to the alienation found in the curse of Gn 3:16, suggesting that the messianic king will ultimately reverse the curse on the woman.

These views notwithstanding, it remains best to understand the Song as primarily a poetic presentation of a biblical view of ideal love and marriage. This is not to treat the book as a sex manual, but rather as divine guidance for the most sacred earthly relationship created by God. It treats marital love as a spiritual creation. Roland Murphy correctly concludes that "the eventual canonization of the work … can best be explained if the poetry originated as religious rather than secular literature" (Roland E. Murphy, A Commentary on the Book of Canticles or the Song of Songs, Hermenia—A Critical and Historical Commentary on the Bible [Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress Press, 1990], 94–95). Love and marriage are divinely ordained and not mere cultural mores.

Unity and Structure. Scholars approach the structure of the Song in two ways. The first holds that the Song is a loose collection of songs/poems without a chronological or narrative flow. The second maintains that there is a logical flow of thought, based on a chiastic structure, suggesting a subtle, almost dramatic, progression.

Regarding the first approach, while the Song is often seen as a loose collection of songs/poems, the scholars who hold this view do not see it as completely devoid of order. The repeated refrains (2:7; 3:5; 8:4) and parallel structures (2:10–13 with 7:12–13; 2:14 and 17 with 8:13–14; 3:1–5 with 5:2–8; 3:6–11 with 5:9–16; and 4:1–7 with 6:4–10) indicate an internal coherence and structural unity in relation to its themes. Those who interpret the Song as an anthology of love poems identify the various poems as follows:

Nevertheless, the book’s multiple intertextual links argue against this anthological interpretation (a loose collection of poems) but rather reflect an internal unity. First, the same characters appear and speak throughout the book: the maiden, the lover, and the daughters of Jerusalem. Second, similar figures of speech are used throughout: e.g., love is better than wine (1:2; 4:10); fragrant perfume (1:3, 12; 3:6; 4:10); lovely cheeks (1:10; 5:13); eyes like doves (1:15; 4:1); teeth like sheep (4:2; 6:6); admonitions for purity (2:7; 3:5; 8:4); gazelles (2:9, 17; 8:14); Lebanon (3:9; 4:8, 11, 15; 7:4). Third, the book is united by the rich, consistent poetic imagery of flora, fauna, fragrance, and color, suggesting the beauty of Eden.

David A. Dorsey correctly maintains, "The sophistication and homogeneity of the Song’s surface-structure design strongly suggests a unified poem that was composed by a single author" (The Literary Structure of the Old Testament [Grand Rapids, MI: Baker, 1999], 213). Dorsey’s chiastic outline demonstrates the symmetry that many interpreters have observed in the Song.

The A, B, and C sections reflect the courtship phase of this ideal marriage; D is the focal point of the poetic book and focuses on the actual wedding, while C’, B’, and A’ describe the maturation of marital love in an ideal marriage. The interpretation that will undergird this commentary is that the book is a collection of love poems arranged or structured to depict these three phases of marriage: courtship (1:1–3:5), wedding (3:6–5:1), and maturation of marital love (5:2–8:4).

Background. As part of the Hebrew Bible, the Song is one of the megillot (scrolls) in the Writings section. The book had early acceptance and was included in the LXX translation. The Mishnah indicates certain portions of the Song were used during the Passover festival celebrated in the temple before AD 70 (Ta’anit 4:8).

In AD 90, the rabbinic scholars of Yavneh debated the Song, not regarding its inclusion, because it was already included, but rather re-examining it to verify its canonical status. There, Rabbi Akiba upheld the Song’s divine inspiration using allegorical interpretation as a means to justify its spiritual value (cf. Gleason L. Archer, Jr., A Survey of Old Testament Introduction [Chicago: Moody, 2007], 541).

Although not quoted in the NT, the early Church recognized the Song as Scripture. The Church fathers attested to its canonicity and interpreted it primarily as an allegory. Throughout Church history, the Song has stimulated debate.

A longstanding objection to the Song’s canonicity is that the name of God is used only once (8:6). Yet the name of God does indeed appear in the book. Moreover, having the name of God in the text is not a criterion for inclusion in the canon—the canonical book of Esther lacks the name of God in its text.

Critical scholars also object that the language of the Song is too descriptive of physical characteristics and sexual intimacy. In response, the Song does indeed include references to sexual intimacy and romantic love in poetic form; but these images have been given exaggerated sexual meaning by some recent interpreters. Despite the Song’s obviously romantic content, it should not be reduced to a sex manual. The Song warns against approaching sexuality irresponsibly (cf. 2:7; 8:4, 6). Instead, the book is overwhelmingly a celebration of marital love.

Despite these objections to the Song’s place in the canon, it can confidently be recognized as a canonical book. The Song should be read as God’s Word on wisdom applied to marriage.

The chiastic structure (see above on Unity and Structure) of the Song reflects a subtle "beginning-middle-end" arrangement, progressing from courtship (A, B, C), to wedding (D), to the maturing of the marriage (C’ B’ A’). The outline below reflects that view of the structure, and is the one on which this commentary is based.

The book opens by introducing Solomon, the author, followed by a series of songs describing the courtship (1:1–3:5) between the king (1:1, 4, 16) and a young woman. She is later identified with the title "the Shulammite" (see the explanation at 6:13) and, for the sake of clarity, will be called this throughout this commentary. From the beginning of the book there is a chorus of "we" (1:4b), the "daughters of Jerusalem" (1:5), who reiterate key ideas. Most notably, this section describes the growth of love between Solomon and the Shulammite prior to marriage and before their marital consummation.

1:1. The first words in the Hebrew text, shir hashirim, introduce the work as "Solomon’s best song" or "Song of all Songs." This superlative form (singular noun + article + plural version of the same noun) is also seen in the phrases "King of kings," "Lord of lords," and "holy of holies." Of all of Solomon’s many songs (cf. 1Kg 4:32), these lyrics make up his very best.

1:2–4. The woman expresses her romantic desires for Solomon (The king) in a poem of invitation that focuses on his many attractive qualities (his kisses, his mouth, his love, his fragrance, and even his name). The verb in the clause the king has brought me into his chambers should be translated as a precative perfect indicating longing or request, not an accomplished event. Therefore, the phrase should be translated "O that the King would bring me into his chambers" (cf. HCSB). This is a better understanding because their wedding would not be consummated until a future time.

The daughters of Jerusalem (cf. 1:5; 3:10; 5:8, 6) approve: We will rejoice in you and be glad (1:4b), and extol the appropriateness of her love for him. Better than wine (v. 2) and more than wine (v. 4), a frequent image in the Song (1:2, 4; 4:10; 5:1; 7:2, 9; 8:2), suggests their relationship is more enjoyable than the joy of wine (Pr 5:18–19). In Scripture, wine is associated with gladness (Ps 104:15; Zch 10:7) and worship (Ex 29:40; Nm 15:1–10). In the Song, wine is always mentioned positively (Sg 1:2, 4; 4:10; 5:1; 7:2, 9; 8:2). This opening indicates a physical longing of unfulfilled romantic love; such desire is a good gift from God when expressed within the bounds of His moral values.

1:5–7. The woman addresses the daughters of Jerusalem to whom she defends her appearance as well as introduces her brothers, who have contributed to her self-neglect by sending her to perform a task normally assigned to men within this ancient culture (vv. 5–6). My own vineyard is a metaphor for "my body, femininity, or womanly charm." The brothers do not reappear in any other poem until the close of the Song in 8:8 where they again are not mentioned positively. Even here she distances herself from them by calling them my mother’s sons. Thus, the brothers are mentioned here as part of the city motif that is often an obstacle to the lovers within the Song. They, like other onlookers, are not helpful or approving of the young woman’s romantic interest. The woman compares her sun-darkened skin to two exotic and luxurious dark images: the Bedouin tents of Kedar (constructed of black goat hair) and the curtains of Solomon. Solomon’s curtains are described in 2Ch 3:14, "He made the veil of violet, purple, crimson and fine linen, and he worked cherubim on it." Like these exotic furnishings, the woman is at once dark yet beautiful. Her self-description as black says nothing of her ethnicity or origin from any place outside of Israel. Here the thought is clearly of skin that has become blackened by the sun and not of a possible African origin. Though she has not enjoyed the pampering of the more sophisticated daughters of Jerusalem, the rustic maiden is aware of her own charm. In v. 7, she wants to know where her beloved is pasturing his flock and where he will rest at noon. It was a common practice for shepherds to rest during the heat of the day. Her description of one who veils herself means she does not want to be without Solomon, looking sad and dressing as a person in mourning (Ezk 24:17, 22).

1:8–11. Like lovers in other generations or cultures, this couple speaks in imaginary terms in which they at times give themselves make-believe identities (e.g., shepherds, peasants, animals, brother and sister—and at other times as royalty). The images of shepherd and shepherdess have caused confusion for interpreters, but ancient kings often identified with this trade and idealized it. As if a shepherd, the man responds playfully and invites her to come looking for him. While comparing a woman to a horse is no compliment in the modern age, the point is that the woman is like one female horse (My mare) entering the company of many male chariot horses—completely distracting! The mention of Pharaoh continues the Song’s royal imagery and is followed by lavish descriptions of her appearance. In v. 11, the daughters of Jerusalem (We, cf. 1:5) say they will make beautiful jewelry, ornaments of gold and silver for her—a distinct change of opinion from their prior mocking (cf. 1:6).

This section shows the progression of the courtship in a series of shorter poems. Their attraction to and longing for each other intensifies throughout the section.

1:12–14. Appealing fragrances provide the theme for this three-verse poem. First, the woman’s perfume (nard) gives off its scent. Her lover is then likened to a sachet of fragrant myrrh lodged between her breasts, and further to a cluster of henna blossoms in the vineyards of Engedi—a tropical oasis in the rough Judean desert close to the Dead Sea that was known for producing aromatic plants. Likewise, she was surrounded by the pleasant thoughts of her beloved. In addition to the sensation of smell, Engedi’s topographical appearance also contributes visually to the poem: it is a refreshing oasis that might serve as an ideal location for lovers.

1:15–17. A key to romance in the Song and in life is the giving and receiving of kind words of appreciation. While many translations insert headings to suggest who is speaking throughout the Song, at times it is impossible to be certain who it is. The NASB consistently translates the female lover as darling (Hb. ra’ayah, or ra’ayati, "my darling") and the male as beloved (Hb. dod, or dodi, "my beloved"). The couple’s dialogue of mutual admiration takes place on a luxuriant (lit., "green") couch (or bed) in a house of cedars (idealizing a nature scene with fragrant flora). Eyes like doves are mentioned in 1:15; 4:1; and 5:12. In each instance the eyes are appreciated for some quality also shared by doves—perhaps their softness or the way they flutter.

2:1–4. The woman compares herself to a flower and her lover to an apple tree. The exact identification of the flowers in vv. 1–2 is debatable. She implies that she is fruitful—a wild flower of the fertile Sharon plain (a lush, fertile area on Israel’s Mediterranean coast; cf. Is 33:9; 35:2), a lily of the valleys (the definite article is absent from the Hb. text). The man answers in Sg 2:2 by insisting that she is more than a lily among other lilies. She is like a lily among the thorns in comparison to other girls. She responds appreciatively in praise of his uniqueness, stating that he is like an apple tree (perhaps better translated "apricot" because there is no evidence apples were grown in Israel in antiquity) among the more simple non-fruit-bearing trees of the forest (v. 3).

This poem reveals several especially important requirements for a developing relationship. First, women value a sense of protection. Sitting in shade is an image of protection throughout the Scriptures (cf. Ps 36:7; 91:1; Is 16:3). Second, couples need to cultivate the joy of being together. The Shulammite enjoyed his company, taking great delight and sitting with him. Third, couples should cultivate a growing knowledge of each other. The importance of intimate personal experience is captured in the image of his fruit of the apple tree being sweet to her taste (cf. Ps 34:8). This depicts an in-depth interpersonal involvement, short of sexual intimacy. Fourth, couples need public commitment. Solomon publicly proclaimed his love for her by bringing her into his banquet hall. Here he declared his love with a banner (Hb. degel, a flag or ensign used to identify or direct troops). Flying the banner indicated possession and leadership. The intimacy and commitment of courtship are developed by these expressions of protection, communication, knowledge, and dedication, building a strong sense of security and self-worth for a future stable marriage. (These four principles were developed from the observations of Jack Deere, "Song of Songs," BKCOT edited by John F. Walvoord and Roy B. Zuck [Wheaton, IL: Victor Books, 1985], 1014–15).

2:5–6. She described her emotional reaction as lovesick, being consumed by love. She communicated her condition by requesting raisin cakes and apples (or apricots, cf. 2:3), ancient symbols of love, to give her strength. As they approached marriage, the Shulammite longed for her beloved, desiring his left hand under her head and his embrace (lit., "caressing") with the right hand, signaling her readiness and anticipation of physical affection in their future marriage (cf. 8:3).

This unit concludes with the first of three refrains of admonition (2:7; 3:5; 8:4). These adjurations function as structural markers in the book, indicating the end and beginning of units of thought.

2:7. I adjure you (placing the daughters of Jerusalem under oath and requesting their promise) suggests that love is a serious matter and should not be entered into foolishly or casually. If the virgin girls of Jerusalem are to enjoy the type of relationship described in the Song, they should be careful not to arouse or awaken sexual passions prematurely. Until she (better, "it") pleases suggests the appropriate time for such enjoyment. Forcing or hurrying sexual experience can bring disastrous results and should be reserved for the time it can develop naturally within the security and faithfulness of the marriage covenant. Wild animals associated with fertility, the gazelles and hinds (does) of the field, were called on as witnesses to this oath—perhaps as a circumlocution to continue the Song’s avoidance of the divine name.

2:8. The Song often portrays the couple as either together in joyful companionship or apart in longing anticipation—emotionally expressed in terms of desire and fulfillment. They look forward to their reunion and the exciting intimacy of marriage. In v. 8 the two have been apart but are now within sight, and their reunion is cause for elation. The woman compares her lover to a gazelle or a young stag leaping on the hills—a motif repeated at the beginning and end of 2:8–17, providing an enclosing structure (inclusio) that sets off the poem as a distinct unit. The poem portrays a couple excited with the anticipation of marrying and consummating their marriage, but facing certain fears, awkwardness, and obstacles that they eventually overcome.

2:9–13. She imagines her lover’s journey like the actions of a quick and agile gazelle or a young stag (v. 9; see also v. 17; 8:14). She cannot wait for his arrival, and he is making no detours in his undistracted determination to reach her quickly. While the mountains and hills are correctly understood as obstacles, her lover dances rapidly over them in order to enjoy her company.

On his arrival, he waits outside her family home, standing … looking … peering through the lattice, anxious for their reunion (v. 9). From here, he offers the invitation (vv. 10–14), beckoning his lover to join him in the countryside. He assures her that nature’s seasonal indicators make it evident that their time has arrived (v. 12). The idyllic nature descriptions are reminiscent of the garden of Eden.

Our land (v. 12) hints at the theological dimension of Israel’s connection to the land as promised to the patriarchs and their descendants. Their land, then, is the ideal place for them to be, the spring is the ideal time for them to be there, and the couple view each other as the ideal people to be enjoying all that the land has to offer as it becomes their lovers’ paradise.

2:14. Verse 14 climaxes the springtime poem as the lover pleads with his beloved to accept his invitation to their countryside rendezvous. His pet name for her is my dove, a bird that loyally bonds with its mate for life (cf. 1:15; 2:14; 4:1; 5:2, 12; 6:9). Doves often sought refuge in the clefts of the rock, in the secret place of the steep pathway, and he wanted to be with his beloved in such a secluded place. Her beloved’s encouraging words reassure her, and she is overcome with a sense of security and desire for him (2:16–17). In time she is able to confidently assert, "My beloved is mine, and I am his" (v. 16; cf. 6:3).

2:15–17. Walled and tree-lined vineyards provided seclusion and natural protection from view along with the fragrance of blossoming vines (cf. 2:13)—ideal for romantic encounters. But the image of little foxes living in a vineyard and damaging the tender blossoms is a warning to catch relationship problems before they damage the growing bonds of deeper intimacy. Lovers must protect themselves from such harmful elements. The poem concludes with the woman’s restatement of mutual belonging (My beloved is mine, and I am his, v. 16) and her inviting call (reminiscent of v. 9) encouraging him to be like a young stag and speed his way to her.

3:1–4. After their time of courtship in the country, perhaps Solomon left the Shulammite and returned to Jerusalem. The woman recounts a repeated experience in which night after night she sought him in what is probably a dream scene or a nightmare. During their betrothal, she was longing to have and to hold her groom and felt she could no longer endure their separation. In the dream, her unmet desire was so great that it drove her out into the dangerous nighttime city streets and squares. Since criminals and prostitutes are normally found in such areas at night (cf. Pr 7:8, 12), the watchmen who make the rounds in the city were unhelpful in her quest as seen even more clearly in the parallel scene at 5:2–8. When they found her, in her urgency she took the initiative to question them: Have you seen him whom my soul loves? These bold actions illustrate how the powerful force of romantic love can drive people to risk their safety, security, and status in society. The Song alludes to several obstacles to committed lovers (e.g., family members in 1:6 and 8:8–9; relational conflicts in 2:15; or a disapproving public in 8:1–2), but she is allowing nothing to diminish her love for him.

Her actions on finding him seem odd to modern readers: I held on to him and would not let him go until I had brought him to my mother’s house, and into the room of her who conceived me. These strange actions should not be mistaken for the brazenness of prostitutes (cf. Pr 7:13; Hs 2:7). Rather, in the retelling of her dream she is indicating that the marriage covenant is the appropriate response to romantic desire. She does not want anything to separate them until they can wed and consummate their marriage. The mother’s house is mentioned twice in the Song and two other times in the OT (Sg 3:4; 8:2; Gn 24:28; and Ru 1:8)—all in the context of marriage. In the ancient Near East, it was often the mother who arranged the wedding.

3:5. This refrain concludes the courtship section (1:1–3:5) and transitions to the wedding portion of the Song (3:6–5:1). Her adjuration to the daughters of Jerusalem has the effect of charging them not to arouse or awaken sexual passions before they can be consummated in marriage (cf. 2:7; 8:4). This exhortation is a reminder for contemporary singles that sexual purity can be maintained more readily if sexual experimentation is avoided until sexual expression can be legitimately fulfilled in marriage.

In ancient Israel, marriages were arranged by parents (e.g., Gn 24:1–67). On the day of the wedding there would be procession of the groom to the bride’s home (cf. Mt 25:1–13), followed by the wedding ceremony and party. This section depicts the wedding procession (Sg 3:6–11) and the consummation (4:1–5:1).

3:6–11. The focus turns from adjuration (v. 5) to description (vv. 6–11). This poem celebrates the luxurious views of King Solomon’s wedding procession using the common poetic device of question and answer: What is this …? Behold, it is.… The descriptions suggest an elaborate convoy of sight and scent featuring the procession of the groom, King Solomon, on his sedan chair (v. 9; a decorated seat carried on poles).

A number of biblical connections related to temples and royal gardens begin to emerge from this description. The furniture of the tabernacle, like Solomon’s chair, was overlaid in silver and gold (Ex 26:32; 36:36). Similarly, Solomon’s palace and temple were constructed from timber imported from Lebanon (1Kg 5:6; 10:17; 2Ch 2:8, 10), as was his chair. The Hebrew term olah (coming up, Sg 3:6), describing the ascent from the wilderness, most likely to Jerusalem, also evokes temple imagery since it is the term for the whole burnt offering that goes up as a sweet-smelling aroma to the Lord (e.g., Lv 3:5). That the columns of smoke were perfumed with myrrh and frankincense (Sg 3:6) and every other spice that was sold recalls the Song’s "mountain of myrrh" and "hill of frankincense" (4:6), where these conceptual images integrate temple and garden imagery. Both are places of renewal and fellowship. The poem provides a scene that is at once majestic, luxurious, and holy.

The daughters of Jerusalem (synonymous with Zion) who were cautioned in 3:5 are now encouraged in v. 11: Go forth, O daughters of Zion, and gaze on King Solomon with the crown with which his mother has crowned him. These majestic scenes demonstrate the importance of the day of his wedding, described here as the day of his gladness of heart (cf. Ps 45:1). The heart that yearns with passion for oneness, commitment, and an honorable union is gladdened by marriage.

One must wonder how this wedding Song of gladness and commitment relates to other biblical portraits of King Solomon who was not known for his marital faithfulness. Two explanations may help piece together this puzzle: (1) These love poems, among other things, may be an expression of an idealized marriage extolled by Solomon without necessarily suggesting this was his actual experience. (2) Solomon may have once been a more wise and loyal king in his younger years. But he eventually succumbed to the pressures about which God warned Moses, such as taking wives as guarantees of political treaties (Dt 17:17; 1Kg 11:4). Like many today, Solomon knew far better than he acted. Nevertheless, the biblical ideal of one wife and one husband united for a lifetime in the covenant of marriage is praised and upheld in the Song despite Solomon’s tragic legacy concerning the sanctity of marriage.

Three times in this unit Solomon tells the Shulammite she is beautiful (vv. 1 [twice], 7). Although these comparisons of beauty are unfamiliar to the modern mind, they were lovely poetic images in Solomonic Israel. In this section Solomon praises seven areas of her beauty: eyes, hair, teeth, lips/mouth, temples, neck, and breasts.

4:1–7. Descriptive poems such as this were commonly employed in ancient Near Eastern wedding songs and are still in use in the Middle East today. Such poems praise the wonders of the bride’s attractive form, poetically describing her beautiful body part by part and making figurative comparisons in which x (one of her physical attributes) is like y (a lovely element found in nature). Three poems in the Song describe the woman (4:1–7; 6:4–10; and 7:1–9), and one describes the man (5:10–16). The interpreter must answer the question, How is x like y? And with poetry, the answers can be many. In light of the cultural and historical distance between the reader and Solomon, modern readers may find these points of comparison strange, yet they were appealing images of beauty in ancient times. Modern lovers can learn much in the Song about the importance of kind words of praise from one another.

The man’s praise begins with admiration of his beloved’s eyes and hair (v. 1), and moves to her teeth (v. 2), lips, mouth, and temples (v. 3). For further details on the repeated images of hair, teeth, and temples, see the commentary on 6:5–6. Her hair is seen as a flock of goats moving down Mount Gilead, a mountain range east of the Jordan River known for its pastureland (cf. Mc 7:14). From a distance, it would be beautiful to see a herd of black goats cascading down those mountains. Her eyes are compared to doves, perhaps because of their softness or the way they flutter. Her lips, like a scarlet thread, are red and narrow. Unlike the other items in this list, no simile is employed to describe the woman’s mouth. He simply states that her mouth is lovely—a term of affectionate appreciation.

His positive description descends next to her neck (apparently prominent, like David’s tower, about which Scripture says nothing else, Sg 4:4) and climaxes with a vivid appreciation of her two breasts, which are likened to twins of a gazelle which feed among the lilies (v. 5)—probably a reference to the agile animal’s soft, supple form, or a view of the pair’s rounded hind quarters which became conspicuous when feeding with their heads down. A majority of interpreters understand the description of the two aromatic mountains (I will go my way to the mountain of myrrh and to the hill of frankincense) in v. 6 as an elaboration of the man’s admiration of his lover’s breasts. Verse 7 affectionately summarizes the poem. It reiterates its main idea: You are altogether beautiful, and the man sees no blemish in her (cf. 5:2). Every husband should view his wife in this way. The standard of beauty should be his love for her, not the shifting cultural norm of appearance or the passing of years. A husband’s appreciation of his wife’s physical beauty and intrinsic value should be a lifelong hallmark of their relationship (cf. Pr 5:18; Mal 2:14).

4:8. This poem of invitation, description, and acceptance/consummation is often seen as the centerpiece of the entire book. The request to come is an invitation to the wedding night. In this section Solomon calls her my bride six times (4:8–5:1), indicating a change in relationship from courtship to marriage. The groom requests that his bride join him in consummating their marriage as though she were coming from the distant mountainous wonderland of Lebanon near the peaks of Amana, Senir, and Hermon. Unlike the famous Mount Hermon that straddles the borders of modern Israel, Syria, and Lebanon, the exact locations of the peaks of Amana and Senir are debated and were even confused by different groups in Bible times (cf. Dt 3:9). They are likely distinct peaks in the ridge known as Mount Hermon.

At this point the bride granted the groom’s request to join him and now Solomon praises her physical expression of love for him. The metaphors depict the purity and virginity of the bride prior to the wedding night.

4:9. He is taken captive by her love. She made my heart beat faster. Calling his bride his sister throughout this section (cf. vv. 10, 12; 5:1–2) is an affectionate term for her. It seems to have been a common phrase of endearment between couples in the ancient Near East, and does not indicate a true sibling relationship.

4:10–11. The Hebrew word for love (dod) is used here for physical expressions of intimate romantic love (cf. 1:2, 4; 5:1; 7:12; Pr 7:18; Ezk 16:8). Intimacy between the husband and wife is better than wine (cf. Sg 1:2, 4) and the fragrance of all kinds of perfume. Her kisses are like honey and milk, an allusion to the sweetness of the promised land (cf. Ex 3:8; Lv 20:24; Dt 6:3). Her clothing had the fragrance of Lebanon, rich with aromatic cedar (1Kg 5:6; Pss 29:5; 92:12; 104:16; Is 2:13; 14:8; Hs 14:5). Their love involves all the senses from sight, to taste, to touch, to smell.

4:12. The images of a garden (cf. 4:12, 15; 5:1; 6:2) locked and spring (4:12, 15) sealed up depict privacy, refreshment, and virginity. It has been observed that "The most obvious feature of the Song of Songs is the sexually explicit nature of the material, sensitively guised in figurative language" (J. Paul Tanner, "The Message of the Song of Songs," BibSac 154 [April-June, 1997], 145).

4:13–14. Solomon amplifies the garden metaphor by picturing the beauty of an orchard, meaning a park-like, enclosed garden (cf. Neh 2:8; Ec 2:5), not the typical garden where fruit is grown. The bride is compared to a pomegranate (cf. Sg 4:3), henna (cf. 1:14), and nard (cf. comments on 1:12). Saffron is a costly spice made from the pistils of the crocus; calamus is possibly sweet cane (cf. Is 43:24; Jr 6:20; Ezk 27:19); cinnamon (Ex 30:23; Pr 7:17) was imported from Egypt; myrrh (cf. Sg 1:12) and aloes were fragrant plants from the Red Sea area. These aromatic, costly spices call to mind the beauty, desirability, and value of the bride.

4:15. She is further described as a garden spring (cf. 4:12) and a precious well of fresh water, the most valuable resources in Israel’s arid climate. This wholesome, fresh, and pure bride is now accessible to Solomon.

4:16. This section gives a delicate poetic invitation by the bride to her groom. She wants her garden (cf. 4:12) to send out (breathe out) an alluring fragrance to attract Solomon. She invites her beloved to come into his garden. The garden that was once hers is now his to enter and enjoy its choice fruits, a poetic invitation to sexual union of husband and wife.

5:1. The string of four past-tense verbs in 5:1 (I have come … I have gathered … I have eaten … I have drunk) indicates completion and the satisfaction of sexual desire. The garden of sexual delights that was closed to all others in 4:12 is now completely open exclusively for him to enjoy. The repetitive phrases my garden, my sister, my bride poetically communicate his feelings of contentment, closeness, and commitment as well as the appropriateness of these emotions since she is his bride (repeating the claim of 4:8). While the bride is not his biological sister, the groom employs a common Semitic term of family closeness in calling his beloved his "sister" to express his deep feelings for her. Approval of their union is declared in the closing words of the poem—Eat, friends; drink and imbibe deeply, O lovers—which have been attributed by commentators to the daughters of Jerusalem, wedding guests, or even to God Himself as the author of marital love (Gn 2:18–25). Similar approval of sex in marriage is expressed in Pr 5:18–20.

This section of the Song concerns the couple’s maturing marital relationship. After the anticipation of courtship (1:1–3:5) and the delight of the wedding (3:6–5:1), this section provides a template for a maturing marriage. It includes an interpersonal problem and its resolution, showing how couples can learn to resolve difficulties (5:2–6:13). Furthermore, the poems that follow express the deepening of love as the marriage matures (7:1–10) and the deepening of romantic intimacy as the years of marriage progress (contrary to contemporary ideas that romance must decline with familiarity).

5:2–8. The Song indicates there are seasons of greater and lesser passion in marriage. Like the parallel poem of 3:1–5, I was asleep but my heart was awake describes a dream or a nightmare. The husband affectionately requests her sexual availability: Open to me, my sister, my darling, my dove, my perfect one! But she describes how her excuses and hesitation caused his passions to subside and the opportunity to be lost by the time she warmed up to his advances: I opened to my beloved, but my beloved had turned away and had gone! (v. 6). Now more appreciative of his desires (My heart went out to him as he spoke), she misses him and ventures into the dangerous nighttime city to search for him (v. 7). Sadly, watchmen mistake her for a prostitute and, in this nightmare, beat her as a means of crime deterrence. As in the parallel scene of 3:1–5, she charges the daughters of Jerusalem, but this time she requests their assistance: If you find my beloved, as to what you will tell him: For I am lovesick (v. 8).

After the dream, the Shulammite realizes how much she loves and desires her husband, and gives a loving description of him.

5:9–16. Her adjuration elicits questions from the daughters of Jerusalem (v. 9; cf. v. 16): What kind of beloved is your beloved … that thus you adjure us? In other words, they ask, what is so special about your lover that you so desperately seek our help? Their question in turn prompts her to offer the descriptive poem of vv. 10–16 within the larger poem of 5:2–6:3. This is the second of four poems of description in the Song and the only one in which the man is described (see comments on 4:1–7; 6:4–10; 7:1–9). She states that he stands out uniquely in a group of even ten thousand other men and describes his head, locks of hair, eyes, cheeks, lips, hands, abdomen, legs, overall appearance, and mouth—concluding that he is wholly desirable. The description of the man as dazzling may be because of his clear complexion. He is described as ruddy (Hb. adom), a word that often means "red" or "a burnished dark color" like the stony land of Edom, whose mountains and crags are a reddish color. His head (v. 11a), like pure gold, is impressive and without defect. Ruddy cannot be a reference to red hair, as v. 11 compares his locks to clusters of ripe dates that are black as a raven. Just as the groom compares the bride’s eyes to doves in 1:15 and 4:1, so the bride likens his eyes (v. 12) to this soft and fluttering creature. Birds, both the raven and the dove, are often impressive and enjoyable to observe. His eyes seem to be calming with a healthy white sclera (thus sitting beside streams of water and bathed in milk). His cheeks (v. 13a), like most Israelite males (Lv 19:27; 21:5), were probably bearded, thus resembling a sprouting bed of herbs. It is uncertain how his lips (Sg 5:13b) are to be likened to lilies, but the garden imagery is consistently idealized in the Song. His hands (v. 14a), abdomen (v. 14b), and legs (v. 15a) are likened to strong, firm materials, suggesting his muscular strength and virility. Yet his strong and impressive appearance is tempered by the tender description of his mouth—full of sweetness (v. 16a). All this would profit her little if not for his mutual appreciation for and commitment to her. This is my beloved and this is my friend (v. 16b). The term friend (Hb. reyah) is used here in the sense of "intimate companion," "compatriot," "partner in task," and "close friend" (cf. Pr 27:9–10, 14, 17). It is unlikely that a marriage could survive on sexual attraction alone. But even if it could, friendship helps a couple grow in their love for one another and greatly enhances romance.

6:1–2. The couple was originally separated because of the indifference of the beloved (5:2–8). Waking from her dream, the Shulammite realized her love for and need of her husband, and this is expressed in her song of praise (5:10–16). After waking from her dream, the daughters of Jerusalem now offer to assist (6:1) in the poem’s original search of 5:6–8. They ask, Where has your beloved gone, O most beautiful among women? Her reply employs the garden imagery of 5:1—a metaphor for their sexual delights. This is reminiscent of the garden of Eden where the first human couple was naked and unashamed in their one-flesh union. My beloved has gone down to his garden, to the beds of balsam, to pasture his flock in the gardens and gather lilies (6:2). In this context, pasturing (lit., "feeding") refers to the satisfaction of the sexual appetite. Apparently she has found him, and their lovemaking has resumed.

6:3. The words of exclusivity, mutuality, and commitment in 6:3 supply the famous lover’s aphorism cited often in Jewish marriage contracts and inscribed on wedding rings: I am my beloved’s, and my beloved is mine. Above friends and other family (even children, which are not mentioned in the Song), marriage is the only bond that causes two people to become one flesh (Gn 2:24).

6:4. The third of the Song’s four poems of description is found in 6:4–10 (see comments on 4:1–7; 5:10–16; 7:1–9). Like its counterparts this poem contains many comparisons describing the Shulammite. She is as beautiful as Tirzah (a city once chosen as a capital for the northern tribes whose name means "pleasantness" because of its location on a beautiful hill bounded on three sides by a river, the Wadi Farrah), and as lovely as Jerusalem (with all of its regal and spiritual nostalgia). The phrase awesome (Hb. ayom, lit., "terrible or terrifying"; thus "dreaded" in Hab 1:7) as an army with banners occurs both in Sg 6:4 and 6:10, each time illustrating how overwhelmed the man is with his beautiful bride.

6:5–7. Her hair is like a flock of goats [which are often black] that have descended from Gilead (perhaps suggesting it cascaded onto her shoulders and was wavy and black). Though the ancients did not possess cosmetic dentistry, and missing teeth was a common phenomenon (cf. Ex 21:24, 27; Pr 25:19; Lm 3:16), she had all of hers (her upper and lower teeth matched like twins, and not one among them was missing). Her temples are like a slice of a pomegranate—perhaps a reference to the rosy color of her cheeks, or as an example of blossoming springtime fruit often associated with sexuality and fertility (see also Sg 4:3, 13; 6:7, 11; 7:12; 8:2), or because of its use in the ancient world as an aphrodisiac, or all of the above.

6:8–10. The Shulammite is uniquely beautiful among every category of women without number. There might be sixty queens (women married to the king), and eighty concubines (women having sexual relations with the king, but not married to him), and maidens (young women of marital age, but still virgins; Hb. almah, cf. Is 7:14). Yet she alone is called my perfect one (Hb. tam, "one who is morally innocent and ethically pure, lacking nothing in beauty or strength") and unique. She is the most beautiful in the land—none can compare to her.

Harems (sixty queens and eighty concubines, and maidens without number) were a fact of life among ancient royalty and their inclusion here is not a biblical sanction of polygamy. Rather, the poem extols her exclusive place in comparison to other women: But my dove, my perfect one, is unique. Even in an ancient culture that tolerated polygamy, the biblical ideal of one man and one woman united exclusively in marriage is elevated. God strictly forbade kings, as the example to the nation, from polygamy (Dt 17:17). Although the Scriptures recount that the patriarchs and kings had multiple wives, this should be understood as a true record of events, not a model of family life. Solomon is evaluated negatively for his foreign wives (1Kg 11:1–6), and Scripture reveals numerous details of the domestic strife that entered into the lives of others who were known for their polygamous relationships (cf. the vindictive baby-naming contest between Rachel and Leah in Gn 30; the rivalry between the mothers of Ishmael and Isaac; the emotional trauma brought on by Hannah’s co-wife, Peninnah). Some forms of immorality are so obviously against the grain of Scripture that a clear biblical command against such activity is unnecessary. The poem concludes (Sg 6:10) with these other women (v. 9), perhaps the daughters of Jerusalem, echoing the man’s praise of his unique lover.

6:11. Like 7:12, this brief poem looks to nature to signal the timing when marital joys should no longer be delayed: I went down to the orchard of nut trees to see the blossoms of the valley, to see whether the vine had budded or the pomegranates had bloomed. The blossoming orchards and vineyards indicate to the woman that springtime has arrived (cf. 2:11–13 where "winter is past"), and flora and fauna alike know that it is the season for love. Nature’s readiness is symbolic of her own readiness.

6:12. This verse uses common Hebrew words, but the syntax is unusual. (For a deeper look at the issues, see Jill Munro, Spikenard and Saffron: A Study in the Song of Songs [Edinburgh: T & T Clark, 1995], 30.) At the end of their reconciliation, the Shulammite (I, my, my) picturesquely expresses her joy. Her husband had gone down to her garden (v. 2), and she experienced an affirmation of his love (vv. 4–10). She was enraptured, beside herself with joy: before I was aware, my soul set me. In modern language she might have said, "Before I knew what happened, I felt on top of the world." She compares her exaltation to being chief over all of Solomon’s great army (1Kg 10:26) of 1,400 chariots, overseeing my noble people in full view of a crowd. Their reconciliation was complete and public.

6:13. As they left the garden, the onlookers begged them to come back (four times) … that we may gaze at you! They wanted to enjoy her beautiful presence, just as contemporary crowds want celebrities to stay on stage for an encore. And the request for her return appears to come from the daughters of Jerusalem. Earlier, in 6:9, the maidens saw her and called her blessed. Similarly, these local girls do not want their heroine to flee away from view but to return to them so they can continue to delight in her beauty.

Throughout the Song, the female lover is referred to as "my sister," "my bride," "my darling," "my dove," "my perfect one," but only at v. 13 is she identified as (the) Shulammite. Opinions abound about how to understand this word: (1) it is the girl’s proper name; (2) it is a geographically-based name for the girl (since the letters l and n can be exchanged in Semitic languages at times, the girl could be from Shunem in the Jezreel Valley—home to the beautiful maiden Abishag in 1Kg 1:3 and the Shunammite woman who fed Elisha in 2Kg 4:8); (3) it is a pet name derived from the root letters of Solomon’s name, since she is his counterpart in the love poems (i.e., "the Solomoness"); or (4) it should be translated as "perfect one," since the root word for Solomon and Shulammite, like the word "shalom," means "perfect" or "complete." Views 3 and 4 are the most compelling. They are not mutually exclusive (i.e., they could both be correct) in that the meaning of the words Solomon (Hb. Shlomo) and Shulammite (Hb. Shulamit) both derive from the root "shalom," meaning "perfect" or "complete." Such a complimentary term for the lovers seems appropriate in the context of the praises they offer one another. View 1 is suspect because this verse would provide the only attestation of the proper name "Shulammite" in biblical or extra-biblical ancient Hebrew (despite the name’s popularity in modern Jewish communities). Against view 2, the only other Shunammite women in the Bible are mentioned by that designation. There are no other references to "Shulammite" women, as if from Shulam/Shunem. But the more likely view is that the name is a title using the feminine version of "Solomon." Support for this view is twofold: (1) the presence of the article "the" (Hb. ha) indicating that it is a title meaning "Solomon’s wife," and (2) the similarity to the Ugaritic designation of Daniel’s wife, understood as "Lady Daniel" (for a full discussion of the options, see Marvin H. Pope, Song of Songs, AB [Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1977], 596–598).

While the first lines of Sg 6:13 appear to be the words of the daughters of Jerusalem pleading with the Shulammite to return to them, the final lines of the verse seem to be the woman’s reply. No specific dance is associated with two companies (6:13), but perhaps the imposing sight of two armies about to engage in battle continues the military imagery of 6:4, 10. The modest Shulammite asks why the daughters of Jerusalem would want to gaze at her the way they might at two armies engaged in battle.

The daughters of Jerusalem ask many questions in the preceding context: "what kind?" (5:9), "where?" (6:1), and "who?" (6:10). Now, as if in response, the man poetically defends his choice of the Shulammite.

As a marriage matures, difficulties will arise and should be resolved. Likewise, the expression of love should grow. In this section, Solomon praises his wife’s beauty (7:1–6) and then expresses his longing for her (7:7–9a), followed by a mutual expression of love and commitment (7:9b–10).

7:1–6. The Song’s fourth poem of description is embedded within the larger poem of 6:13–7:10. In the other descriptive poems (4:1–7; 5:10–16; 6:4–10), the descriptions begin at the head with the eyes or hair and descend downward. However, here the man’s description begins at his bride’s feet and ascends to her hips, navel, belly, breasts, neck, eyes, nose, head, locks of hair, stature, breasts again, breath, and mouth. It has been suggested that his attention was drawn to her feet as she danced for him. Her hips are likened to artistically designed jewels, likely a reference to their perfect shape. While not specified, the artist or master-craftsman hints at God as the creator of all (cf. Pr 8:30 where the same term is used in the context of God’s wisdom in creation). He compares her navel to a round goblet which never lacks mixed wine as a symbol for abundance and that which continuously brings satisfaction (Sg 7:2). Her belly is likened to a heap of wheat bordered by lilies—all images associated with health and fertility. But overwhelmingly he desired to enjoy her breasts. He mentions her breasts briefly in v. 3, continues his descriptive poem working his way up her form to her neck, nose, head, hair, and overall stature (vv. 4–7a)—but returns to focus again on her breasts in vv. 7b–8 before concluding with her mouth and lips in v. 9. It is not as though these other body parts are not of interest. Her neck is both strong or prominent and beautiful like a tower of ivory (v. 4a); her nose is also compared to a tower—this time with geographical locations that protrude just outside of Israel’s borders into Lebanon in the north and Damascus to the northeast; her eyes are desirable and appropriately moist like the pools of the fertile Transjordanian Medeba Plateau at Heshbon (v. 4b); her head crowns her body like the Carmel mountain range that sits prominently on Israel’s northern coast (v. 5a); and her flowing locks of hair are like purple threads—a royal color which captivates the king—even though this does not state that her hair was purple!

7:7–9a. The husband longs for his wife and refers to her stature being like a palm tree (Hb. tamar), fitting well with his vertically ascending description of the woman’s form. This tree was idealized as a symbol of beauty and fertility throughout the ancient Near East because it can grow even in a harsh desert if a water source is available. The palm tree is therefore a fitting image of marriage as a refreshing oasis in a harsh world. He desires to scale the palm tree of her body and enjoy her breasts as if they were fruit to be eaten (v. 8). His description concludes with this statement of determination and a final word about her mouth. It is like the best wine (v. 9a).

7:9b–10. The bride responds positively to her groom and picks up on the wine imagery: It goes down smoothly for my beloved, flowing gently through the lips of those who fall asleep (v. 9b). While wine is often the precursor to wrongdoing in Scripture (Gn 9:20–27; 19:30–38; Is 28:7), and its excesses cautioned against (Pr 20:1; 23:29–30; 31:4–5), it is also associated with gladness (Ps 104:15; Zch 10:7) and worship (Ex 29:40; Nm 15:1–10). In the Song, wine is always mentioned positively (Sg 1:2, 4; 4:10; 5:1; 7:2, 9; 8:2). Apparently the word it at 7:9b in the NASB refers to their kisses and caresses, which were flowing gently and smoothly between them. The poem concludes (v. 10) with a statement of rightful belonging: I am my beloved’s, and his desire is for me (similar to 2:16; 6:3).

In response to Solomon’s praise for the Shulammite and his expression of desire for his beloved, she responds with her longing for intimacy with her husband.

7:11. Throughout the Song, the husband instigates sexual intimacy and invites his wife to enjoy his advances, but here the wife is the instigator: Come … let us.… Such freedom is an indicator of a healthy marriage in which both partners give and receive, instigate and cooperate, invite and accept invitations. And the mutuality shared by the Song’s lovers illustrates both the joy of having one’s sexual desires met in marriage as well as the joy of being desired sexually in marriage. Thus the Song subtly offers instruction about love for both husbands and wives.

7:12–13. She looked to the signals of the created order to determine the season of love in 6:11. And in 7:12 she invites him to see whether the vine has budded. She promises that when he accepts her invitation to the countryside, There I will give you my love—the love she has saved up for her beloved. The mandrakes (from the common root word meaning "beloved," Hb. dod) are mentioned in this romantic vineyard scene as a love-enhancing aphrodisiac and serve a similar function to the other sweet fruits mentioned throughout the Song (cf. 2:3; 4:13, 16; 8:2). This plant has a sweet bloom and parsnip-like root, often branched in the shape of a man, thus the English name. The Hebrew name, dudaim, literally means "love plant," and was considered to possess aphrodisiac qualities (Gn 30:14–16). By pointing out the fragrance of mandrakes, the Shulammite is saying the atmosphere is right for love. They would share fruits, both new spring produce, and old, dried fruits of the previous spring (e.g., dates, raisins, and apricots, typical delicacies in the Middle East), indicating that their love is creative and fresh, yet familiar and comfortable. It was a love she had saved up for her beloved.

In this section the Shulammite builds on the initiative described in the previous section and expresses her desire for even greater intimacy with her husband-lover.

8:1. Jewish standards of modesty in the Old Testament era limited public displays of affection to certain family members, but excluded husbands and wives. Therefore the Shulammite wished her husband were like a brother so that she could kiss him outdoors, in public. Here outdoors refers not to the remote scenes of the countryside that have often provided privacy for the couple. This location suggests a public place where she was not free to demonstrate her affections without being shamed by others and where disapproving onlookers would despise them. However, according to her proposed solution in the poem, if he were merely like a brother, rather than a lover, no shame would be attached to tame displays of affection.

8:2–3. She continues this thought by casting herself in the role of an older sister who would lead you—the verb (Hb. nahag) is always used of a superior leading an inferior. She would take the initiative and bring him to her house and give him spiced wine (cf. 1:2), made from the juice of pomegranates (cf. 4:3), a specifically romantic drink. She openly invites him to totally embrace her, with his left hand and right hand.

8:4. These hindrances and difficulties prompt the final exhortation refrain: To experience the intimacy that she and her beloved share, the daughters of Jerusalem should not stir up sexual passion before the appropriate time but instead reserve such intimacy for their husbands (cf. 2:7; 3:5).

This final section summarizes the message of the Song, first with a statement on the strength of marital love (8:5–7), and then a summary of the specific love relationship between Solomon and the Shulammite (8:8–14).

8:5–7. Various images describe the nature and power of love. First, love is like a seal, or signet ring. In the ancient world, this was an engraved stone or metal stamp used to prove ownership and indicate the value of a possession. The Shulammite wanted to be her husband’s most valuable treasure. Having the seal over his heart, the place of his affections (e.g., Ps 9:1), and over his arm, the source of his strength (e.g., Dt 7:19), demonstrated her priority in his life.

Second, love is as strong as death. If love is true, nothing can stop love or change love. Third, love, described as jealousy, is as severe as Sheol (the place of the dead). In English, jealousy usually has negative connotations, but in Hebrew (qinah) also indicates "ardor, zeal, passion." For example, the Lord is jealous for His people (e.g., Ex 20:4–5; Nah 1:2). Here love is depicted as powerful and inescapable because the flame of the Lord Himself is the source of love. This is the only use of God’s name in the Song, and is significantly associated with the strength of love. This pictures love’s serious intensity and resolute devotion. Fourth, love is pictured as unconquerable (Sg 8:7). It cannot be swept away or drowned by many waters. Fifth, love is priceless and cannot be bought by great riches.

The conclusion of the book looks back on their relationship. First it explains the protection of the girl by her brothers when she was a child (8:8–9). Next it reviews her first encounter with Solomon (8:10–12). The Song ends with statements showing the couple’s ongoing intense love (8:13–14).

8:8–10. While families play an important role in protecting girls from sexual harm, the absence of a father in the Song may be the reason the brothers are overzealous in their desire to protect their sister—even though she is ready for marriage. A wall suggests that she has fortified herself against promiscuity. A door suggests easy access, in which case she will need assistance in protecting her purity. But she assures her brothers, I was a wall, and then asserts her readiness to give herself only to her marriage partner.

8:11–12. Just as Solomon had the prerogative to entrust his literal vineyard in Baal-hamon (an unknown location), the Shulammite had her very own vineyard, a metaphor for her own person, which she would now give to Solomon. The vineyard’s name (meaning "lord possessor of abundance") implies that it was fruitful. Solomon entrusted, or leased, this to her brothers as caretakers (cf. 1:6). Each one was required to produce fruit valued at a thousand shekels of silver, for which they would be paid wages of two hundred shekels each. This vineyard was where the Shulammite first met Solomon.

8:13–14. He asks to hear her voice—Let me hear it! And she requests that he make no delay in joining her: Hurry, my beloved, and be like a gazelle or a young stag on the mountains of spices. The cautious warnings and acknowledgments of harsh realities are set aside in preference of risking to choose love’s joys. The Song concludes on the high note of the lovers’ great expectations.

The Song is significant for contemporary readers as a marriage metaphor for the love between God and His people. As such, it can be instructive about the virtues and joys of fidelity to the marriage covenant (see Is 54:6–7; Jr 2:1; Ezk 16; 23; Eph 5:22–33; Rv 19:6–8). The book’s poems suggest that marriage—like the gardens of which they speak—can be viewed as a microcosm of the garden of Eden and by extension God’s temple. Such harmony and communion between husband and wife is not only reminiscent of the blessings and gifts of God to mankind in Eden (Gn 1–2), but also the fellowship with God that was to be known through the tabernacle and temple (Ps 16:11).

Yet, above all, the Song of Solomon remains significant for understanding human marital love. Frequently, contemporary perspectives toward marriage diminish its value and disrespect the need for permanent commitment. In dramatic contrast, in the Song, Solomon presents an outstanding picture of emotional commitment and physical love between a husband and wife. God’s beautiful design for men and women is purity prior to marriage, then a monogamous, sacrificial, passionate loving relationship between one man and one woman for life (Gn 2:24). Solomon described the marriage relationship as God intended it, proclaiming, "This is my beloved and this is my friend" (Sg 5:16).