The book opens with these words: "James, a servant of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ" (1:1). The name "James" is based upon the Greek transliteration (Iakobos) of the Hebrew "Jacob." But which "James" is this? There are four men who bear the name of James in the New Testament. First, there is the father of one of the apostles, Judas, not Iscariot (Luke 6:16); however, his life is too obscure to be considered for the authorship of this book. Second, there is James, the son of Alphaeus (Matt. 10:3), probably also known as James the less (Mark 15:40). If he had been the author, he doubtless would have mentioned his apostleship. Also, outside of his listing with the other eleven apostles, his life lacked renown. Third, there is another apostle, James the son of Zebedee and the brother of the beloved John (Matt. 4:21). As a member of the inner circle of three disciples, he was well known and held in high esteem. However, since he was martyred rather early in the history of the early church (a.d. 44; Acts 12:2), it is very unlikely that he could have written this book. If he had, he certainly would have identified himself as an apostle and/or as the brother of John. The most plausible possibility is that James, the brother of Jesus, wrote the Epistle (Matt. 13:55; Gal. 1:19). Although "James" was a common name, only a person of prominence could have used it without any further identification. It was so used of the brother of the Lord several times (Acts 12:17; 15:13; 21:18; Gal. 2:9, 12; Jude 1). Writing much later, Jude identified himself as "the brother of James" (Jude 1). His readers must have known that his blood brother was also the Jerusalem overseer and the writer of this early canonical book (cf. Mark 6:3). Further proof of this position can be seen in the striking similarity between the vocabulary of the book and the speech that James gave at the Council of Jerusalem: "Greeting" (chairein, 1:1; cf. Acts 15:23); forms of the verb "to visit" (episkeptomai, 1:27; cf. Acts 15:14) and "to turn" (epistrepho, 5:19–20; cf. Acts 15:19); and the equation of the phrase "that worthy name by which ye are called" (2:7) with "upon whom my name is called" (Acts 15:17).

What was the exact relationship of James to Christ? Those who argue for the perpetual virginity of Mary claim that James was either a cousin or a stepbrother, a child of Joseph by a former marriage. They believe that either view best explains the arrogant, sarcastic unbelief of Christ’s relatives (John 7:3–5) and the commitment of Mary to John the apostle rather than to them at the cross (John 19:25–27). However, the natural reading of the text suggests that Mary was the real mother, not only of Jesus, but also of his brothers and sisters (Matt. 12:46–50; 13:55; Mark 6:3; John 2:12; 7:3, 10). These children were born to Mary and Joseph after the birth of Jesus. The Pauline identification of James as "the Lord’s brother" (Gal. 1:19) confirms this conclusion.

Since his name heads the list of Jesus’ brothers and sisters (Matt. 13:55; Mark 6:3), he was the oldest of the children born to Mary and Joseph. Evidently, he and his brothers did not believe in the deity and the messiahship of Jesus during either the latter’s developmental years or His years of ministry (John 7:5). When Jesus was regarded as insane and as a blasphemer, they may have manifested a natural human concern for his physical welfare (Mark 3:21–31). Their absence at the Crucifixion may have been caused by their shame or embarrassment over the shameful death experienced by Jesus. In any case, they did not become believers until after Christ’s death and resurrection. They were among the first to receive the news of Christ’s resurrection from Mary Magdalene (John 20:17). Christ later personally appeared to James (1 Cor. 15:7). Whether the other brothers saw Him during the forty days of postresurrection ministry is uncertain, but all the brothers were numbered among the believers, including the apostles, during the ten-day interval between Christ’s ascension and the descent of Holy Spirit (Acts 1:14). Within five years of Christ’s ascension, James was known as an apostle (Gal. 1:19). When Peter was miraculously delivered from prison after the martyrdom of James the son of Zebedee, he was especially concerned that James should be informed about his release and his departure from Jerusalem (Acts 12:17). This may indicate that James by this time (a.d. 44) was acknowledged as the overseer of the Jerusalem church, especially in the absence of the apostles. Shortly after (a.d. 46), Paul regarded him along with Peter and John as the pillars of the Jerusalem church (Gal. 2:9). In fact, James was one of the three who recognized and approved Paul’s apostolic credentials and message. At the council of Jerusalem (Acts 15), he was the final spokesman, gave the oral verdict, and recommended that letters incorporating the council’s decisions be sent to the Gentile churches. When Paul came to Jerusalem at the end of his third journey, both James and the church elders suggested that Paul ceremonially purify himself as a testimony to Christian Jews who were zealous of the law (Acts 21:18–26). It was this event that led to Paul’s seizure, arrest, and imprisonments (Acts 21:27–28:31). From this point on, Scripture is silent about the ministry of James.

Tradition is mixed about the death of James. According to Eusebius, an early church historian, Paul’s conspirators turned on James after the apostle, under Roman custody, went to the imperial city. When James refused to renounce Christ under the pressures of the priests and elders, he was forced to the temple roof and thrown over. For a short while after impact he lived, but he was finally beaten to death. Josephus, the early Jewish historian, claimed that James was martyred during a Jewish insurrection in the interval between the death of Festus, the Roman procurator of Judea, and the arrival of the new governor, Albinus. Death supposedly came by stoning. Both traditions have two common facts: James died a martyr’s death and that event occurred about a.d. 62–63.

The book was slow in gaining canonical recognition. Eastern Church Fathers (Origen, Cyril of Jerusalem, Athanasius, Jerome, and Augustine) accepted its authenticity well before the leaders of the Western churches. In fact, it did not gain general recognition as a genuine, canonical book until the Council of Carthage (a.d. 397). Several reasons can be suggested for this delay in acceptance. The apparent contradiction of Paul over the relationship of faith to works probably caused some doubt. Since James was not well known outside of Palestine, the fact that he wrote an early book just to Jewish Christians might have disenchanted some Gentile churches.

James wrote "to the twelve tribes which are scattered abroad" (1:1). Some believe that this refers to the non-Christian Jews of the dispersion; however, the nature of the imperatives could only be directed at believers. Others feel that the book was written to all Christians, both Gentile and Jewish. The phrase "twelve tribes" would be synonymous with "spiritual Israel." The most plausible view is that James wrote to Christian Jews who were scattered throughout the Roman empire. They were perhaps once residents of Palestine, but persecution or lack of job opportunities forced them out of that locale. James would have personally known many who were driven out of Jerusalem in the persecution prompted by Stephen’s martyrdom (Acts 8:1–4; 11:19). He would have also known those Jewish pilgrims who were saved on the day of Pentecost (Acts 2:9–11) and those diaspora Jews who worshiped in nationality-centered synagogues in Jerusalem (Acts 6:9). At this time Jews still knew their tribal ancestry (Luke 2:36; Phil. 3:5). Since Peter later wrote to the diaspora Jewish Christians "throughout Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia, and Bithynia" (1 Peter 1:1), it may be that James wrote to Christian Jews in the East, possibly Babylon or Persia. This would further explain the late acceptance of the book by the Western churches.

All critics and historians believe that the book was written rather early in the first century (a.d. 45). If so, it was the first book of the New Testament to be composed. There are some internal hints for this early date. The church leaders are called teachers and elders, not bishops and deacons as in later writings (3:1; 5:14). The synagogue is mentioned as the meeting place of Christians (2:2). There are no references to doctrinal truths revealed in later Epistles: the Church as the body of Christ, the oneness of believing Jews and Gentiles, and the apostasy. The Judaizers’ controversy over the necessity of circumcision had not yet arisen. The gulf between the rich and the poor, especially among the Jews, ended with the Jewish-Roman war (a.d. 66; 5:1–6); therefore, the book had to be written before that event. Some sense within James a familiarity with the teachings of Jesus, especially the Sermon on the Mount. If so, the parallelism is in concept rather than in direct quotation; this should be expected from a book written before the actual Gospel records. Since tradition places the martyrdom of James in a.d. 62, the book could easily have been written in the fifth decade (a.d. 45–50).

The place from which it was written is unknown. Various sites have been suggested: Rome, Antioch, Alexandria, and Jerusalem. The last one is the best possibility since in the Bible James is always placed in Jerusalem after his conversion.

Little is known about the historical background of the writing of the Epistle. The contents of the book suggest that the readers were in the midst of trials (1:2–12; 5:10–11), in moral laxity (1:22–25; 4:1–11), and in doctrinal confusion (1:13–16). James, aware of the situation, wrote thus to correct their moral and doctrinal problems.

The general purpose of James was to exhort his readers to support with their lives what they said with their lips. Specifically, he wrote to explain the nature of trials and temptations (1:2–18), to appeal for religious practice (1:19–27), to rebuke them for their partiality (2:1–13), to show the necessity of works as the evidence of faith (2:14–26), to warn against the improper use of the tongue (3:1–12), to describe the nature of spiritual wisdom (3:13–18), to contrast worldliness with spirituality (4:1–12), to point out dependence upon the will of God for future plans (4:13–17), to warn the rich against improper use of wealth (5:1–6), to reinforce their need of patience (5:7–11), to instruct them about various types of prayer (5:12–18), and to give guidelines about the recovery of the sinning Christian (5:19–20).

There is a striking similarity between the content of James’ Epistle and Jesus’ Sermon on the Mount. James either heard the Sermon personally or discussed it with those who did. Note these comparisons. Mere profession is not enough to get one into the kingdom of heaven (2:14–26; cf. Matt. 7:21–23). Hearing and doing go together (1:22; cf. Matt. 7:24–27). The character of a person is made evident by his actions (3:11–12; cf. Matt. 7:16–20). The warnings against judging (4:11–12; cf. Matt. 7:1), wrong use of wealth (5:1–6; cf. Matt. 6:19–24), and swearing (5:12; cf. Matt. 5:34–37) can also be seen.

James, like Jesus, liked to use Old Testament characters as illustrations: Abraham (2:21), Isaac (2:21), Rahab (2:25), Job (5:11), and Elijah (5:17).

He also had an affinity for illustrations from the world of nature and from the ordinary activities of mankind: wind-tossed wave of the sea (1:6), withering grass and fading flowers (1:10–11), burning heat of the sun (1:11), conception and birth (1:15), shadows caused by the sun’s position (1:17), firstfruits (1:18), looking into a mirror (1:23), begging (2:15–16), breath of the body (2:26), bits in horses’ mouths (3:3), helms of ships (3:4), fire (3:5), taming of creatures (3:7), fountain of water (3:11), figs and olives (3:12), sowing and harvesting (3:18), vapors (4:14), motheaten garments (5:2), rust (5:3), labor and wages (5:4), early and latter rains (5:7), anointing with oil (5:14), and drought (5:17).

In a New Testament book it is unique that the Savior is mentioned only twice directly and twice indirectly: "Lord Jesus Christ" (1:1; 2:1) and "the coming of the Lord" (5:7, 8). If the title "Lord" refers to the Son rather than to the Father, then He is seen elsewhere also (4:10, 15; 5:10, 11, 14, 15). There is no reference, though, to Christ’s incarnation, death, or resurrection. The book, however, is saturated with the teaching of Christ instead of His imprinted name.

James was very concerned about the speech of the believer. He devoted almost an entire chapter to the use of the tongue (3:1–12). Throughout the book he used verbs pertaining to the right and the wrong uses of the tongue: "ask" (1:5, 6; 4:2, 3 [twice]); "say" (1:13; 2:3; 2:14, 16, 18; 4:13, 15); "speak" (1:19; 2:12; 4:11 [twice]); "tongue" (1:26; 3:5, 6 [twice], 8); "word" (3:2); "mouth" (3:10); "laughter" (4:9); "boasting" (4:16); "howl" (5:1); "crieth" (5:4 [twice]); "grudge" (5:9); "swear" (5:12); "sing" (5:13); and "pray" (5:13, 14, 16, 17, 18). The verb "said" is used of God or the Bible (2:11 [twice]; 4:5–6), and the verb "spoken" is used of the prophets (5:10).

Salutation (1:1)

The book begins and ends with the subject of trials (1:2–3; cf. 5:10–11). Such trials are designed by God to produce joy (1:2), patience (1:3), maturity (1:4), wisdom (1:5), stability (1:6–8), humility (1:10), blessing (1:12) and love (1:12) in the believer’s life. Wisdom to understand the purpose of the test can be secured through believing prayer. God designs such tests for a certain period of duration. The believer must endure it completely and must continue to love the Lord throughout the trial in order to receive the crown of life. This could refer to the abundant life of present experience (John 10:10) and/or to a special reward to be given at the judgment seat of Christ.

Within a test planned by God there may come a temptation to do evil. The believer must distinguish between the test and the temptation. He should never blame his sin on God because sin is contrary to the nature of God. God could never respond to a solicitation to do evil, nor would He ever tempt a believer to sin. Man himself bears the total blame for his own sin because it originates within the lusts of his sin nature. Note the order: lust—sin—death. A believer should realize that God is never the source of evil but that He is always the origin of good and perfect gifts. Since God is immutable ("no variableness neither shadow of turning"), evil will never proceed from His good, holy being. The sin of our lustful wills brings forth death, but His will gave us a new birth (cf. John 3:5). Since like begets like, a good, holy God produces good, holy human lives, not sinful ones. As "firstfruits of his creatures," believers should be like Him.

James exhorted his readers to "be swift to hear, slow to speak, slow to wrath" (1:19). This contrast was to be developed in producing the righteous life (1:20–21). True righteousness involves not just the hearing of the Word, but the actual doing of it. If a man looks into a mirror, views his dirty face, and walks away without washing it, then why did he even look into the mirror? A nondoer of what he hears is in the same situation (1:22–25). Genuine religion does not involve hypocritical lip-profession (1:26), but it includes compassionate acts and personal purity (1:27).

There can be no partiality in the maintenance of genuine faith (2:1). To show preference for a rich visitor to the church service over a poor one is evil (2:2–4). Since God did not choose men to salvation on the basis of their economic condition, neither should Christians favor the rich over the poor. In Christ the poor man is just as wealthy as the rich man (2:5). The poor and the rich must be loved equally in order to fulfill the royal law of loving one’s neighbor as oneself (2:8). James then pointed out that violation of this directive made the sinning Christian a transgressor (2:9–11). Christians are to speak and to do the truth consistently knowing that they will be judged for their exercise of mercy and partiality (2:12–13).

James argued that a living faith will produce living works of faith. He was critical of the man who claimed to have faith but who had no works to substantiate his claim. Can that kind of faith save anyone? His implied answer was negative. A statement of compassion without actual help when one has the power of relief has no profit (2:15–16). Three times James emphasized that a mere profession of faith without works is dead (2:17, 20, 26). Such a faith is no different than the belief of demons in monotheism. Since their faith never issued in a transformation of life, it was valueless. The faith of Abraham’s lip in the covenant promises was made perfect in his action of offering Isaac as a sacrifice. James did not claim that Abraham was justified by faith and works; he argued that the patriarch was saved by a faith that wrought works (2:21–23). Rahab, likewise, demonstrated that she believed in the God of Israel as her own God when she hid the Jewish spies. James then equated the works of faith with the spirit of the human body. Human life is marked by the presence of breathing; genuine spiritual life is marked by the activity of works.

James warned against impromptu decisions to become teachers. Since teachers influence their students not only in what they say but also in how they live, their accountability to God is much greater (3:1). He declared that those who can control the tongue can also control their behavior (3:2). To illustrate his thesis he pointed to the bit in the horse’s mouth, to the helm of the ship, and to a spark that kindles a forest fire (3:3–5). He declared that the tongue was the one member of the body that Satan could use to defile the believer’s body and to destroy other lives (3:6). Although men have trained animals, creeping things, and sea creatures, yet they are unable to tame the tongue because of its innate evil propensities (3:7–8). Within seconds men can use their tongues to bless God and to curse men. This paradox in man is contrary to the principles of nature (3:9–12).

A living faith and genuine wisdom are companions. If a person has both, he will "shew out of a good conversation [lit., behavior] his works with meekness of wisdom" (3:13). A life that manifests envy and strife reveals an earthly, sensual, demonic wisdom couched in confusion and evil works (3:14–16). Heavenly wisdom is characterized by purity, peace, gentleness, approachability, mercy, and good fruits, and is without partiality, and without hypocrisy.

A spiritual Christian manifests peace, not fighting (3:18; cf. 4:1). Dissension stems from the lusts of the sin nature, not from the Spirit of God. In a series of positive and negative statements (4:2–3), James revealed that his readers had committed spiritual adultery in that their friendship with the world made them the enemies of God (4:4). Envy was caused by their lustful human spirit, not by the Holy Spirit (4:5). In a series of imperatives, he then explained the essence of spiritual wisdom and behavior: humility (4:6), submission to God and resistance of the devil (4:7), nearness to God (4:8a), cleansing of one’s actions and attitudes (4:8b), contrition over sin (4:9), and self-abasement (4:10). He concluded by warning against evil speaking or judging one’s brother. Such actions make a person a judge of the law, rather than a doer of it. Their responsibility was to do; it was God’s work to judge (4:11–12).

He cautioned against presumptuous planning of one’s life apart from the will of God. The question of where we go, how long we stay, and what we do should be answered under divine direction. Since life at its longest is very short, the believer should want to live every moment of it in the will of God. To ambitiously make one’s plans without consulting God is evil boasting and sin.

Earlier, James stated that rich Christians should rejoice when they are made low through divine trials (1:10). The church apparently gave preferential treatment to the rich (2:1–7), and the wealthy members in their midst did not practice compassionate generosity (2:15–16). To those who lived for wealth, James now sounded a warning of judgment. Their riches would perish; their selfishness and fraud would affect their judgment; and their hedonistic practices would one day no longer be tolerated. There is a possibility that for the encouragement of his oppressed readers James echoed the words of Jesus in proclaiming divine judgment against the unsaved wealthy Jews who crucified Christ and who persecuted the Jewish Christians (5:4–6; cf. Matt. 6:19–24).

In the midst of persecutions and divinely ordained trials, the readers were exhorted to have patience (5:7, 8, 10, 11). The imminent coming of the Lord was to provide an incentive for mental and emotional stability (5:8) and for the elimination of personal grudges (5:9). Both the Old Testament prophets and the patriarch Job had suffered, bearing suffering patiently and rejoicing in it, and had been rewarded with divine blessing. The readers were exhorted to follow their examples. Their speech was to be above reproach as they endured their trials (5:12; cf. Job 1:22; 2:10).

In a series of questions and imperatives, James then explained various types of prayer that could be exercised in the midst of their trials. The mentally afflicted one was to utter a prayer of dependence; the happy Christian was to sing psalms of praise; the physically sick was to summon the church’s elders who were to pray over him and to anoint him. The initiative was with the sick person. The believing prayer of all of them would cause the Lord to heal the one who was sick probably because of persecution. If he had committed sins in the midst of his trial, then these would also be forgiven (5:14–15). Mutual confession and intercession were also commanded. The value of "the effectual fervent prayer of a righteous man" was aptly illustrated in Elijah (5:16–18).

The closing two verses deal with the restoration of an erring believer by a concerned fellow Christian. If no one had intervened in the sinning Christian’s life, his sin could have led to the chastisement of premature physical death. Awareness and confession of his sins (1 John 1:9) would hide his sin.